Abstract
The ongoing war in Gaza has devastated women’s reproductive and menstrual health through a systematic and
strategic pattern of reproductive violence. In Gaza, women and children comprise the majority of casualties, and
mothers face heightened risks of maternal diseases, malnutrition, and unsafe deliveries amid the collapse of
healthcare. Testimonies from Gazan women recount childbirth under siege, deaths of neonates in powerless
intensive care units, and the widespread violation of cultural and religious practices. The women of Gaza
also been stripped of basic menstrual health, with over 690,000 women and adolescent girls lacking access to
sanitary products, leading many to adopt unsafe alternatives. These horrifying conditions rob women of both
physical safety and dignity, deepening their suffering. This paper argues for urgent reproductive and menstrual
health interventions, highlighting the need for humanitarian aid and for an immediate ceasefire to protect
women’s rights and lives in the Gaza Strip.
Introduction
The war in Gaza has had a catastrophic toll on women
and children, who constitute 70% of deaths during the
first 11 months of the current 2023–2025 Gaza war.1
This crisis particularly contributes to the systematic
destruction of reproductive capacity, which has been
termed “reprocide,”2 and a “genocide by attrition.”3 The
conflict seeks to erase the biological and social
foundations of Gazan life through its impact on women’s
reproductive health.1 Reproductive violence manifests
through the deaths of 37 mothers per hour, soaring
miscarriage rates, critical malnutrition, and the near-total
collapse of infrastructure for maternal health. Pregnant
women face many threats to their health and that of their
children through maternal anemia, unsafe deliveries
without anesthesia, and a lack of neonatal care.
Premature infants often die in powerless intensive care
units or barely survive after being cut from the bodies of
deceased mothers. The violation of women’s reproductive health is inhumane and represents an assault
on bodily autonomy and the right to life itself.
Giving birth in Gaza
Gazan women narrate a reality where reproductive
violence is not incidental but strategically targeted
against their capacity to give life.4 As Dr. Ghassan Abu
Sitta states, Israel’s military has strategically bombed
maternity wards and destroyed Gaza’s largest in vitro
fertilization (IVF) facility. The destruction of maternity
wards and IVF facilities represents a violation of physical
health, as well as the dignity and religious identity
Muslim women in Gaza. For example, Shatha Jaber
Ismail Qarmout, quoting her sister Dr. Hana, recalls
delivering babies in al-Shati Camp with only hot water
and unsterilized knives amidst constant bombing.
Mariam Mansour Al-Loh, who was displaced and in her
final trimester, describes enduring starvation, anemia,
and emotional trauma while walking to escape and care for her children. Her testimony, which was written in a
tent as she awaited the horrifying prospect of an unsafe
childbirth, captures the unbearable convergence of pain,
survival, and love during times of conflict. These
accounts by Gazan women reveal what Palestinian
feminist scholar Sarah Ihmoud calls “ibaada,” an
annihilation not only of individual bodies but also of a
people’s collective capacity to survive and reproduce.
Gazan women not only describe their physical survival
but also give voice to the collapse of spiritual and
cultural practices.4 Fatma Basheer mourns the loss of her
friend Mariam by remembering their ritual of walking by
the sea, drinking mint tea, and buying sesame bread, all
of which have been erased from existence. Haya Abd Al
Rahman Abu Nasser recounts the horrifying reality
confronting her by stating, “the sky, once a symbol of
solace, now weeps alongside us.” Duaa Badawi delves
into her grief as she details her haunting reality,
“Perhaps, in the end, you survive with half a body, half a
soul, half a heart”.
Altogether, these women’s narratives reveal that Gazan
women’s reproductive capacities are not targeted as a
mere consequence of war, but to diminish any hopes of a
future Palestinian, specifically Gazan, generation.4
Through the destruction of hospitals, the starvation of
pregnant mothers, and the erasure of intimate rituals of
life and death, these women detail their grief, as well as
their refusal to surrender. These women, even under a
hostile siege, continue to give life, to care for their loved
ones, to grieve those who had once been, and to dream of
a future of dignity and justice.
Menstruation in Gaza
Menstruation has become a source of dread for many of
Gaza’s women and young girls.5 With a scarcity of
sanitary products, these women are often left to
improvise with old clothes, scraps of fabric, or sponges,
most of which they reuse without any proper cleaning.
These makeshift solutions are not only unreliable but also
physically dangerous and may lead to infections and
long-term gynecological harm. A Gazan woman stated,
“When we receive hygiene kits, it feels like someone
finally sees us.” The absence of basic menstrual care
products strips away both safety and dignity, diminishing
basic rights and liberties of these women.
According to the United Nations Population Fund, more
than 690,000 menstruating women and adolescent girls in
Gaza face limited access to menstrual products and hygiene facilities.5, 6 Many women have turned to birth
control pills as a means to stop their periods altogether.
These pills tend to be cheaper and more accessible than
menstrual products such as pads or tampons. While
generally considered safe, medical professionals warn
that using the pill over long periods to suppress
menstruation can increase the chance of breakthrough
bleeding,7 or blood clot development.5, 6
hygiene facilities.5, 6 Many women have turned to birth
control pills as a means to stop their periods altogether.
These pills tend to be cheaper and more accessible than
menstrual products such as pads or tampons.
generally considered safe, medical professionals warn
that using the pill over long periods to suppress
menstruation can increase the chance of breakthrough
bleeding,7 or blood clot development.5, 6
The challenges faced by women and young girls in Gaza
can be understood in the context of the lived experiences
of women in Myanmar and Lebanon.8 Women in
Myanmar and Lebanon often changed their menstrual
products in tight and cramped spaces to avoid stepping
outside of their homes at night during times of conflict
This highlights how reproductive health can be impacted
by personal safety during dangerous times. Additionally,
due to a lack of bathroom facilities, there is diminishing
gender separation in the bathrooms, which may increase
anxiety and awkwardness for menstruating women. Most
importantly, managing periods is not only about physical
health. Rather, it also relates to a woman’s sense of
dignity and ability to confidently walk around without
worries of leaking.
Recommended interventions
To address these problems, it is important to integrate
menstrual hygiene management (MHM) programs.9
During the 2022 Pakistan floods, women experienced
shame and trauma due to a lack of menstrual products
and safe spaces–similar experiences to the women in
Gaza. In addition, due to modesty concerns in Muslim
communities, women found it difficult to speak up about
their reproductive needs and access to menstrual
products.
Furthermore, religious expectations surrounding
cleanliness and prayer further isolated women who were
not able to participate in religious activities, such as their
five daily prayers, due to a lack of clean menstrual
resources and hygiene facilities. In response, some
effective MHM strategies implemented in Pakistan
included distributing dignity kits , developing gender
segregated hygiene spaces, and disseminating community
education through religious leaders. Similar programs
should be prioritized and organized by international
humanitarian aid organizations so Gazans can focus on
female-centered reproductive and menstrual care as part
of a larger effort to support their severely damaged
healthcare system. Additionally, such programs should
make an effort to understand the impact on the emotional
and mental well-being of these women.
It is crucial to preserve the right of Gazan women to
fundamental healthcare services and subsequent spiritual
agency. This paper was designed to emphasize the need
for reproductive and healthcare justice for Muslim
women in Gaza during the current 2023-2025 war.
Documenting the insufficient means of menstrual
management and self-care for Gazan women is only one
of numerous feminist issues revealed by this war.10 To
address the protected group of women and children, the
academic community should work to document such
atrocities and, most pressingly, advocate for an
immediate and permanent ceasefire to end the occupation
and to allow sufficient and unimpeded humanitarian aid
into the Gaza Strip today.
References
1.Repo J. Genocide and the destruction of the means of
social reproduction in Gaza. European Journal of
Politics and Gender. [Internet]. 2024 Nov 23;1
Available from:
doi:https://doi.org/10.1332/25151088y2024d0000000
61
2. Ross LJ. Reproductive Justice as Intersectional
Feminist Activism. Souls. [Internet].
3;19(3):286–314. Available from:
doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10999949.2017.1389634
3. Semerdjian E. Gazification and Genocide by
Attrition in Artsakh/Nagorno Karabakh and the
Occupied Palestinian Territories. Journal of
Genocide Research. 2024 Jul
doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2024.2377871
4. Ihmoud S. Countering Reproductive Genocide in
Gaza: Palestinian Women’s Testimonies. Native
American and Indigenous Studies. 2025
Mar;12(1):33–53.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/nai.2025.a957106
5.From natural process to nightmare: How Gaza’s
women and girls cope with their periods in a war
zone. [Internet]. United Nations Population Fund.
2022. Available from:
https://www.unfpa.org/news/natural
nightmare-how-gaza%E2%80%99s
girls-cope-their-periods-
6. Hassan Y, Schmunk R. Periods are a nightmare in
Gaza’s crowded, unsanitary camps. Women are using
birth control to skip them. [Internet]. CBC. 2024.
Available from:
https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/gaza
women-use-birth-control
1.7179069
7. Garbo G, Barrera E, Shim JY, Boskey ER, Grimstad
FW. Use of Continuous Oral Drospirenone for
Menstrual Suppression in Ad
Adolescent Health. [Internet]. 2024 Oct 1; Available
from:
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2024.09.004
8. Schmitt ML, Clatworthy D, Ratnayake R, et al.
Understanding the menstrual hygiene management
challenges facing displaced
findings from qualitative assessments in Myanmar
and Lebanon. Conflict and Health. 2017 Oct
16;11(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031
0121-1
9. Jabbar R, Sama NU, Khattak AI. Integrating
menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in disaste
health response: lessons from 2022 Pakistan floods.
Environmental Research: Health. 2025 May
21;3(3):035001. doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/2752
5309/add364
10. Mahayosnand PP, Haque S, Chan WS. Muslim
Women Have A Gender Preferen
Physicians. J Br Islamic Med Assoc. 2024.
Available from:
https://www.jbima.com/article/muslim
a-gender-preference-for-
