Abstract
The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into modern healthcare systems offers a multitude of advantages,
including improved diagnostics, precision medicine, and operational efficiency. Yet, its implementation within
Islamic contexts introduces distinctive ethical and theological challenges. This article delves into how AI
intersects with Islamic medical ethics by exploring its benefits, associated concerns, potential ethical dilemmas,
and the scope for harmonisation with Islamic jurisprudential values. Due to the fact that developments in AI are
rapid and fast changing, this article seeks to act as a starting point in scholarship this area and by no means
offers all the answers; just an introduction into the importance of engaging in AI and potential challenges.
Introduction
Artificial Intelligence is revolutionising healthcare
through its capabilities in pattern recognition, machine
learning, and data analytics. While these tools provide
enormous potential, the values underpinning Islamic
medical ethics require deliberate integration of religious
principles such as the sanctity of life, the prohibition of
harm, the necessity of informed consent, and the
accountability of actions.
Islamic medical ethics is rooted in sources including the
Qur’an, Sunnah, and centuries of jurisprudential
scholarship. Consequently, adopting AI in Muslim
societies or among Muslim patients must account for
these dimensions (1). There is pre-existing scholarship on
the use of ethical AI in healthcare. Raquel Inquiesta
emphasizes the indispensable role of human oversight in ensuring this. The “Five Facts” framework she has
developed are a good place to start and underscores the
necessity of human involvement at every stage of AI
development and implementation. Interestingly the
perspective resonates with Islamic medical ethics, which
prioritises human dignity, accountability, and the sanctity
of life.
The first of the five facts is human oversight and
decision-making. In Islamic ethics, the concept of niyyah
(intention) is paramount. Ensuring that AI systems are
tools that aid, rather than replace, human decision
making preserves the moral agency of healthcare
providers. Transparency and explain ability is the second .
The principle of amanah (trust) in Islam necessitates that AI systems be transparent and their decision-making
processes understandable to both clinicians and patients.
The third is fairness and non-discrimination. Islamic
teachings advocate for justice (adl) and equality. AI
systems must be designed to avoid biases that could lead
to unjust treatment of any patient group.
The fourth is patient autonomy and consent. Respecting
patient autonomy aligns with the Islamic value of
hurriyyah (freedom).AI applications should support
informed consent processes, ensuring patients are aware
of and agree to AI involvement in their care.
And finally, the fifth is continuous monitoring and
accountability. The Islamic concept of hisbah
(accountability) implies that AI systems should be
subject to ongoing evaluation to they adhere to ethical
standards and do not cause harm (2).
Opportunities in the use of AI to ensure Islamic Medical Ethics
The use of AI in Islamic Medical Ethics brings a
multitude of opportunities which will be explored below
AI technologies can enhance healthcare accessibility in
under-resourced Muslim communities (the British
Muslim community is among the groups with the health
inequalities in the UK) (3) by enabling remote
diagnostics, telemedicine, and language translation tools
tailored to Islamic cultures. This promotes the Islamic
principle of justice (adl) by ensuring equitable
distribution of healthcare resources (4).
The proper use of AI also leads to enhanced diagnostic
accuracy of diseases and subsequent patient outcomes
With AI’s ability to analyse massive datasets in a short
period of time, diagnostic errors can be minimized. This
supports the Islamic imperative of preserving life (hifz
al-nafs), one of the five objectives of Shariah law
(maqasid al-shariah) (5). AI systems, when properly
trained, can outperform humans in the early diagnosis of
diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disorders (4).
This is the future of healthcare, as the UK Health
Secretary has stated in the past (6).
Moreover, AI can be configured to recognize and suggest
treatments in a timely manner that comply with Islamic
guidelines—such as avoiding medications derived from
haram sources (e.g., porcine ingredients) or
recommending gender-sensitive healthcare providers. It
ensures treatment remains within Shariah parameters (7).
Enhancement of informed consent processes is another
opportunity in the use of AI in Islamic Medical
Ethics.AI-powered tools can simplify complex medical
jargon into accessible information, thus enabling patients
– especially those with limited education or language
barriers – to make informed decisions. This supports the
principle of consent (ridha) and autonomy in Islamic
ethics (1).
Ultimately, the use of AI in these spaces can bring real
public benefit (al-maṣlaḥah).AI technologies should aim
to serve the public good, addressing societal needs and
contributing positively to communities. This aligns with
the Islamic objective of promoting welfare and
preventing harm within society (8).
The lives saved in the long run by preventable illnesses
and the use of AI diagnostics means that it is a
phenomenon that has to utilised. Resisting AI is, in a
way, akin to seeing the invention of cars in the early 20th
century but insisting on using a horse and carriage
instead! Modern technology has to be grasped and
harnessed, but as this paper details, there are risks too,
and these must be mitigated.
Concerns and challenges in the use of AI in Islamic Medical Ethics:
Whilst the benefits are profound, there are admittedly
challenges in the use of AI. Like all new technologies,
these must be borne in mind, and whilst solutions to all
the problems are beyond the scope of this paper,
questions are posed below. Challenges should not pose a
barrier to engagement; however, just a note of caution.
Algorithmic bias and inequality is a genuine concern.AI
models trained on biased datasets can reinforce existing
disparities. The output of these systems is dependent on
the input, and if the latter is flawed due to poor datasets,
inequalities can be re-emphasised. This undermines
Islamic teachings on universal human dignity and equity.
For example, diagnostic tools developed in Western
settings may not perform equally well in diverse Muslim
populations (9).
There is also a real risk of a loss of human agency and
moral responsibility. Islamic ethics emphasizes intention
(niyyah) and accountability (taklif). When decisions are
delegated to AI, especially in life-critical contexts. it
becomes unclear who bears the moral responsibility is
it the physician who is meant to oversee the treatment of
the patient, the developer who imbued the machine with the programming and knowledge to deliver treatment, or
the machine which delivers the treatment? This poses a
serious ethical and theological issue (10).
Threats to privacy and confidentiality are another a
concern in the use of AI. The handling of patient data by
AI systems introduces risks of data breaches and misuse.
Islam regards personal information as a trust (amanah)
and obliges strict confidentiality. Violating this principle
can have legal and spiritual consequences (7). Though
this can be mitigated, particularly advanced AI systems
will be difficult to control. Ultimately, AI will outpace the ability of Islamic jurists to issue
timely and informed fatwas. This could result in a legal
vacuum where practitioners lack clear guidance on the
Shariah-compliance of emerging technologies (1).
Moreover, AI systems often operate as “black boxes,”
producing outputs without transparent reasoning. This
lack of clarity poses challenges in medical contexts,
where understanding the rationale behind decisions is
crucial. In Islamic ethics, accountability is paramount,
and the inability to trace AI decisions complicates the
assignment of responsibility when errors occur (11). This
is an issue which needs to be tackled head on. The
clearest possible input is a start.
The use of AI in healthcare necessitates a re-evaluation
of informed consent. Patients must be adequately
informed about the role of AI in their diagnosis and
treatment. In Islamic ethics, ensuring that patients are
aware and agreeable to the use of such technologies is
essential to uphold their autonomy and dignity (11).
There are other challenges which are broader and not necessarily linked to Islamic Medical Ethics but are
worth mentioning regardless. An effective AI system
must have advanced cybersecurity protection from
malware and other malicious actors.
There is always a possibility that AI can be hacked by
others but this can be mitigated. A broader philosophical
question must also be posed, though its answer is beyond
the scope of this paper; what is the impact of the use of
AI on healthcare professionals? The incorporation and
use of AI in the delivery of healthcare not only
transforms patient care but fundamentally reshapes the
role and responsibility of the healthcare professional
(12).
Automating certain tasks may cause anxiety amongst the
medical community, and this links back to the point earlier in this article on who bears moral responsibility
the machine, the developer or the doctor?
Ethical Dilemmas
In Islam, life is sacred and it is God who bestows life and
takes it away. AI systems predicting futility of treatment
raise the question of who authorizes life support
withdrawal. Can machine-predicted prognosis override
human deliberation grounded in Islamic ethics? There is
also a question to be posed with regards to AI in genetic
screening and reproductive health.
Predictive algorithms in prenatal care may encourage
selective abortion based on disability risk. This
challenges Islamic teachings on predestination (qadar)
and the acceptance of divine will. Jurists remain divided
on the permissibility of such interventions (7).
Thinking in the very long term, gender sensitivity in
robotic care is another area that is worthy of
consideration. Many Muslims, patients may prefer same
gender caregivers, especially in more intimate areas
(gynaecology for example). AI-driven robots or virtual
assistants could inadvertently breach norms of modesty
and gender segregation, necessitating culturally sensitive
design (9). Admittedly, this is not yet on the horizon.
How AI may improve ethical standards in Islamic Medical Practice
The study by Al Kubaisi (13) outlines a foundational
framework for AI ethics rooted in the Sunnah of the
Prophet Muhammad. This religious source offers guiding
principles that can directly inform the ethical use of AI in
Islamic Medical Ethics. These principles are not merely
theoretical; they offer actionable ethical standards
applicable to real-world medical scenarios.
Any AI system used in healthcare must have a design and
function that aligns with Shariah principles. For instance,
a diagnostic AI should not support or promote treatments
that involve prohibited (haram) procedures or substances.
As mentioned earlier in the paper, the correct input into
systems is crucial. Bias in healthcare AI can lead to
unequal treatment, violating the Islamic value of justice
(‘adl). The Prophet ﷺ (PBUH) said: “All of you are from
Adam, and Adam is from dust” – emphasizing human
equality.
AI systems must therefore be trained and deployed with
safeguards against algorithmic bias that could result in discriminatory medical outcomes. Safety, Control, and
Accountability are also key. Ensuring that AI systems do
no harm is supported by the prophetic principle: “There
should be neither harm nor reciprocation of harm” (Ibn
Majah). AI in healthcare must allow for human oversight,
and liability must be clearly defined in cases of error
echoing the Prophet’s emphasis on skilled practice and
responsibility in actions.
The correct use of AI in Islamic Medical Practice can
also work in realising the objectives of Shariah by
improving health outcomes (preservation of life),
enhancing informed decision-making (preservation of
intellect), and safeguarding personal and genetic
information (preservation of lineage and property).
In the paper, “A Preliminary Survey of Muslim Experts’
Views on Artificial Intelligence” by Aliff Nawiet al. (14)
the survey revealed a general lack of awareness among
Muslim experts about the extensive impact of AI on
Muslims. This highlights the need for educational
initiatives to inform stakeholders about AI’s ethical
implications, ensuring that AI applications in healthcare
are developed and used in ways that are consistent with
Islamic values. It seems that the global Muslim
population is still unaware of the effects of AI, and with
the advent of its use in healthcare at mass scale on the
horizon, education in this area is a necessity. With better
education and with the aforementioned opportunities, the
use of AI in Islamic Medical Ethics is a positive.
The use of AI allows for the creation of a hybrid ethical
framework. This model allows for AI systems that not
only maximize benefits but also uphold intrinsic Islamic
values like justice, compassion, and human dignity,
ensuring that AI contributes positively to medical ethics.
This blends Islamic ethical reasoning with elements of
both deontological (duty-based) and consequentialist
(outcome-based) ethics. This integration is key to making
AI systems ethically robust and compatible with Islamic
values, especially in fields like medical ethics.
Islamic ethics traditionally blends both duties to God
(ḥuqūq Allāh) and to others (ḥuqūq al-ʿibad) as well as
concern for consequences, particularly through the
concept of maṣlaḥa (public welfare) (15). Medical AI
often makes recommendations or decisions that can
directly impact life, death, and dignity. A hybrid model
would ensure that AI doesn’t just make “efficient”
decisions but also respects moral and religious
imperatives. And ultimately avoids purely data-driven
decisions by integrating moral reasoning grounded in
Shariah principles. An example would be an AI system
used in triage during a healthcare crisis that could be
guided not only by maximizing lives saved (utility) but
also by ethical priorities like fairness, compassion, and
the sanctity of human life. Islamic ethical thought is
already hybrid in nature (15) seeing that textual sources
such as the Qur’an and Sunnah are used as well as
rational tools, otherwise known as Qiyās (analogical
reasoning), Istihsān (juristic preference), Maslaha are
utilised too.
These tools would subsequently enable scholars to
address novel contexts like AI by applying fixed moral
principles like prohibitions against harm and injustice.
They would also likely be involved in evaluating
outcomes for the public good such as improving
healthcare access with AI. A hybrid Islamic ethical
framework could shape AI systems to recommend
treatment plans that respect religious norms (e.g.,
avoiding haram medications unless necessary). flag
ethically sensitive decisions (e.g., end-of-life-care for
human review, preserving accountability (15).
It could also be programmed with justice-aware
algorithms that avoid disadvantaging vulnerable Muslim
populations. There are benefits to this framework in
terms of ethical pluralism and the fact that it
accommodates both traditional Islamic norms and
contemporary ethical reasoning. It is also likely to be
considered legitimate and gains trust from Muslim users
and institutions and is ultimately flexible; it can adapt to
evolving AI contexts while remaining anchored in divine
and moral obligations.
Theological and Jurisprudential Reflections
The use of AI in this field forces a re-evaluation of
classical concepts such as intention, moral agency, and
divine will. For example, if a physician follows AI advice
in good faith, is the accountability solely theirs?
Additionally, AI could assist in issuing responsive fatwas
by simulating outcomes under different fiqh scenarios,
but scholars caution against over-reliance on non-human
judgment (10).
Collaborative dialogue between technologists, ethicists,
and Islamic jurists is essential. The development of
standardized Shariah review boards for AI applications in
medicine is a recommended pathway (1). The
deployment of AI in making autonomous medical
decisions raises theological questions about human
agency and divine will. In Islam, life and death are under
God’s domain, and the use of AI in decisions like life
support or end-of-life care must be carefully considered to avoid overstepping spiritual boundaries (14). This is a
challenge to work through. AI systems are also currently
being developed in secular contexts which means that
Islamic cultural and religious nuances are unlikely to be
considered. This oversight can lead to ethical conflicts
when such technologies are applied in Muslim-majority
societies. There is a need for AI systems to be culturally
sensitive and adaptable to Islamic ethical frameworks
(14).
Shariah-Compliant Design must be factored in during the
development of AI systems. Developers must consult
religious scholars to ensure AI medical tools do not
conflict with Islamic principles from the outset. AI
systems should be developed with purposes that align
with Islamic values, ensuring that their functions serve
the common good and do not lead to harm (13).
Furthermore, these systems must operate in a neutral and
impartial manner without bias, providing equitable
services to all individuals regardless of race, gender, or
socioeconomic status. This aligns with the Prophet
Muhammad’s teachings on justice and equality.
Furthermore, AI ethics can be incorporated in Islamic
and medical education to promote informed, values
driven implementation. To progress this, the
establishment of formal institutions that assess new
technologies for compliance with both Islamic Law
bioethical standards is necessary. And ultimately,
scholars may use AI tools to assist in ijtihad regarding
complex medical questions, provided human reasoning
remains central (13).
It is interesting that Islamic bioethics can be a valuable
ally in shaping global ethical standards for AI in
medicine from a non-religious standpoint too with the
lessons taken being applied in the maintenance of
human-centric care and the prioritisation of informed,
spiritually competent consent (16).
There are other considerations that are not immediately
obvious but are worth reflecting on too. One is
environmental sustainability; it is becoming increasingly
clear that early models of generative AI such as Chat
GPT are water intensive and the data centres that they
rely on use up huge amounts of energy (17). Whilst these
are still early iterations and it is likely that they become
less energy intensive as they develop, AI development
should consider environmental impacts, promote
sustainability and avoiding harm to the planet, as Islam
advocates for the protection of the environment. And
ultimately, the right balance has to be struck between the
use of human reason and expertise and that of the
machine. While AI can augment human capabilities, it should not replace human judgment or lead to
overreliance on technology. Maintaining a balance
ensures that human values and interactions remain
central. The replacement of humans by AI can seem as if
it is something taken by a science fiction film, but should
super intelligent self-replicating AI one day arise, it may
find humanity obsolete (18).
Conclusion
The possibilities of AI in healthcare seem limitless at the
moment, especially with it being such a recent
phenomenon, which has not been fully explored or
maximised. AI can give healthcare professionals the
bandwidth to focus on more complex cases and carries
immense potential in terms of early diagnostics. It holds
transformative potential for enhancing healthcare
delivery within the bounds of Islamic medical ethics
However, this potential must be carefully balanced with
vigilant ethical scrutiny and jurisprudential oversight. A
proactive, inter-disciplinary approach involving religious
scholars, medical practitioners, and AI developers is
essential to ensure AI’s integration is beneficial and
ethically sound (4).
Whilst AI holds promise for advancing healthcare, its
integration into Islamic medical ethics presents
multifaceted challenges. Addressing these concerns
requires a collaborative approach that respects Islamic
ethical principles, ensures transparency, and maintains
human accountability in medical decision-making. The
age of AI has well and truly started; as Muslim scientists
and inventors were at the forefront of discovery and
innovation during the so called “dark-ages”. we need to
re-grasp this mantle and ensure we are again at the
forefront, especially with the importance of the correct
input and instilling Islamic values. Whilst we live in
uncertain times, there is an opportunity for Muslims to be
spearheading the AI revolution and helping humanity
progress.
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